Biotechnological Applications in Medicine Questions in English

(A) Humulin is the first genetically engineered human insulin.
It is a human protein produced by the fermentation of appropriate recombinant $E. coli$ clones.
It has been approved for clinical use in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

(B) $Euphenics$ is the science of improving the human phenotype by modifying the environment or using medical interventions,such as genetic engineering,to treat inherited metabolic disorders. It focuses on correcting the expression of defective genes rather than changing the genotype itself.

(B) The insulin gene was first cloned in $E. coli$ (Escherichia coli) to produce human insulin for treating diabetic patients. This was a landmark achievement in biotechnology,allowing for the mass production of recombinant human insulin.

(A) $ELISA$ stands for Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay.
It is a diagnostic technique based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
In this process,an enzyme (such as alkaline phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase) is linked to an antibody to detect the presence of a specific antigen (like viral proteins) or antibody.
The enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a detectable signal,such as a color change,confirming the presence of the virus.

(A) The gene for human insulin was first cloned into the bacterium $E. coli$ (Escherichia coli) in $1978$ by scientists at Genentech.
This was a landmark achievement in biotechnology,as it allowed for the large-scale production of human insulin using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
$E. coli$ is widely used in genetic engineering because it is easy to grow,has a well-understood genome,and can efficiently express foreign genes.

(A) The first genetically engineered medicine is Humulin, which is synthetic human insulin.
It was produced by an American pharmaceutical company named $Eli-Lilly$ on July $5, 1983$.
This was achieved by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium $Escherichia \text{ } coli$ to produce insulin in large quantities.

(D) The production of genetically engineered human insulin is achieved through recombinant $DNA$ technology.
In this process, the human insulin gene is isolated and inserted into the plasmid of the bacterium $Escherichia$ $coli$ $(E. coli)$.
The transformed $E. coli$ bacteria then express the human insulin gene, producing insulin that is identical to natural human insulin.
This product is commercially known as "Humulin" and is used for the clinical treatment of diabetes.

(A) The International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology $(ICGEB)$ is an international,intergovernmental organization that promotes research and training in advanced biotechnology.
It operates through three main components located in Trieste (Italy),New Delhi (India),and Cape Town (South Africa).
Among the given options,New Delhi is the correct location where one of the primary research centers of the $ICGEB$ is established.

(A) $DNA$ probes are single-stranded sequences of $DNA$ or $RNA$ that are labeled with a radioactive or fluorescent marker.
They are used to detect the presence of complementary nucleotide sequences in a sample.
In humans,$DNA$ probes are primarily used in molecular diagnostics to identify specific genetic mutations,pathogens,or viral infections,which is essential for disease diagnosis.

(A) Appropriate recombinant $E. coli$ clones carrying genes for human insulin,prepared by genetic engineering,can be used as factories for the synthesis of insulin.
On $5th$ July $1983$,an American firm,Eli Lilly,launched the first genetically engineered human insulin,known as $Humulin$.

(A) Gene therapy is a medical technique used to treat or prevent genetic diseases.
It involves the introduction,removal,or alteration of genetic material within a patient's cells.
Specifically,it replaces a faulty or abnormal gene with a functional,normal gene to restore proper cellular function.

(A) Interferons are antiviral proteins that were successfully produced by $Charles \ Weismann$ using recombinant $DNA$ technology in $E. coli$ in the year $1980$.
This was one of the early milestones in the field of biotechnology where a human protein was expressed in a bacterial host.

(D) $Humulin$ is the trade name for human insulin produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
It was the first genetically engineered pharmaceutical product to be approved for human use.
It is produced by inserting the human insulin gene into $E. coli$ bacteria,which then synthesize the insulin protein.

(C) Hybridoma technology is a method used for the production of monoclonal antibodies.
In this process,a specific antibody-producing $B$-lymphocyte is fused with a myeloma (cancer) cell to form a hybridoma cell.
These hybridoma cells are immortal and can be cultured to produce large quantities of specific,uniform antibodies known as monoclonal antibodies,which are highly specific to a single antigen.

(C) In biotechnology,monoclonal antibodies $(Mabs)$ are specialized antibodies that are specific to only one type of antigen.
The concept of monoclonal antibodies was introduced by Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein in $1974$.

(B) Biotechnology is defined as the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services. The use of living organisms or their enzymes/substances to produce products on an industrial scale is the core principle of biotechnology.

(A) Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses.
They are used as biological response modifiers in the treatment of various cancers,such as hairy cell leukemia and melanoma.
Biotechnology allows for the mass production of recombinant Interferon-alpha,which is effective in inhibiting cancer cell growth.

(C) The Hepatitis-$B$ vaccine is a second-generation vaccine.
Second-generation vaccines are produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology or genetic engineering.
In this process,the gene encoding the surface antigen of the Hepatitis-$B$ virus is inserted into yeast cells,which then produce the antigen that is purified and used as a vaccine.

(C) Hybridomas are formed by the fusion of normal antibody-producing $B$-lymphocytes with myeloma cells (cancerous plasma cells).
These hybrid cells combine the characteristics of both parent cells: the ability to produce specific antibodies from the $B$-lymphocytes and the ability to divide indefinitely (immortality) from the myeloma cells.
This technology is widely used in the production of monoclonal antibodies.

(B) $Hybridoma$ cells are formed by the fusion of a normal antibody-producing $B$-cell (plasma cell) and a myeloma cell (a cancerous $B$-cell).
$1$. The $B$-cell provides the ability to produce specific antibodies.
$2$. The myeloma cell provides the property of immortality,allowing the hybrid cell to divide indefinitely in culture.
$3$. These fused cells are called $Hybridomas$,which are used for the production of monoclonal antibodies.

(C) $Euphenics$ is the branch of science that deals with the improvement of human health and the control of inherited diseases,particularly those involving metabolic errors,through the application of genetic engineering techniques.
Genetic engineering allows for the modification of genes to treat or manage these conditions,which is the core focus of $Euphenics$.

(A) Genetically engineered insulin,known as Humulin,was first produced by the American company Eli Lilly in $1983$.
This was achieved using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
Two $DNA$ sequences corresponding to the $A$ and $B$ chains of human insulin were introduced into plasmids of $E. coli$ to produce insulin chains,which were then combined by creating disulfide bonds.

(C) The genetically engineered insulin produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology is commercially known as $Humulin$. It was first developed by the American company $Eli$ $Lilly$ and $Company$ in $1978$.

(D) The production of human growth hormone $(HGH)$ and somatostatin using recombinant $DNA$ technology was first achieved by David Goeddel and his team at Genentech in $1978$. They successfully cloned the genes for these human proteins into $E. coli$ bacteria,allowing for their large-scale production.

(C) David Goeddel and his colleagues at Genentech were the first to produce human growth hormone $(HGH)$ using recombinant $DNA$ technology. They achieved this by synthesizing the $DNA$ sequence coding for $HGH$ and inserting it into the plasmids of $E. coli$ bacteria. The bacteria then expressed the hormone,allowing for its large-scale production.

(D) Human insulin consists of two polypeptide chains: Chain $A$ and Chain $B$.
Chain $A$ contains $21$ amino acids,and Chain $B$ contains $30$ amino acids.
These two chains are linked together by disulfide bridges.
Therefore,the total number of amino acids in human insulin is $21 + 30 = 51$.

(A) Genetically engineered human insulin,also known as Humulin,is produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
In this process,the $DNA$ sequences corresponding to the $A$ and $B$ polypeptide chains of human insulin are inserted into the plasmids of the bacterium $E. coli$.
The bacterium then expresses these chains,which are subsequently extracted,purified,and combined to form functional human insulin.
Therefore,$E. coli$ is the organism primarily used for the commercial production of recombinant human insulin.

(C) Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease.
In the case of Severe Combined Immuno-deficiency $(SCID)$,the disease is caused by a defect in the gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase $(ADA)$.
This therapy involves introducing a functional gene for $ADA$ into the patient's cells (specifically lymphocytes) to restore the production of the enzyme,thereby correcting the genetic defect.
Therefore,option $(C)$ is the correct example of gene therapy.

(B) The incorrect statement is $B$. Calcitonin is a hormone involved in calcium homeostasis and is primarily used in the treatment of conditions like osteoporosis or Paget's disease, not infertility. Infertility is typically treated with hormones like $FSH$ or $LH$.

(A) The first biochemical to be produced commercially using microbial cloning and genetic engineering is human insulin.
In $1978$,scientists at Genentech successfully produced human insulin using recombinant $DNA$ technology in $E. coli$ bacteria.
This was a landmark achievement in biotechnology,as it provided a safe and effective alternative to insulin extracted from the pancreas of slaughtered cattle or pigs,which often caused allergic reactions in patients.

(D) The first hormone produced through recombinant $DNA$ technology (genetic engineering) is $Insulin$.
In $1978$, the American company $Eli \ Lilly$ synthesized two $DNA$ sequences corresponding to the $A$ and $B$ chains of human $Insulin$ and introduced them into plasmids of $E. \ coli$ to produce the hormone chains, which were then combined to form functional human $Insulin$.

(C) Vaccines are categorized based on their production technology.
$1.$ First-generation vaccines are whole-organism vaccines (live attenuated or inactivated),such as the Smallpox vaccine,$D.P.T.$ (Diphtheria,Pertussis,Tetanus),and the Polio vaccine.
$2.$ Second-generation vaccines are recombinant vaccines produced using genetic engineering techniques.
$3.$ The Hepatitis $B$ vaccine is a classic example of a second-generation vaccine,as it is produced by expressing the Hepatitis $B$ surface antigen $(HBsAg)$ in yeast cells using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
Therefore,the correct option is $C$.

(C) $ELISA$ stands for Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay.
In this technique,an enzyme is conjugated to an antibody or antigen to detect the presence of a specific target molecule.
The most commonly used enzymes in $ELISA$ are horseradish peroxidase $(HRP)$ and alkaline phosphatase.
These enzymes catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal,such as a color change,when the substrate is added.

(B) Humulin is the brand name for the first genetically engineered human insulin produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology. It was developed by Genentech and approved by the $FDA$ in $1982$. It is produced by inserting the human insulin gene into the bacterium $E. coli$,which then synthesizes the insulin protein.

(C) Gene therapy is a technique used to treat or prevent diseases by correcting the underlying genetic defect.
In $1990$,the first clinical gene therapy was given to a $4$-year-old girl with adenosine deaminase $(ADA)$ deficiency.
$ADA$ deficiency is caused by the deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase,which is crucial for the proper functioning of the immune system.
This condition leads to Severe Combined Immunodeficiency $(SCID)$.
In this therapy,lymphocytes from the patient's blood are grown in a culture outside the body,and a functional $ADA$ cDNA is introduced into these lymphocytes using a retroviral vector,which are then returned to the patient.

(B) Proinsulin is a precursor molecule that consists of three polypeptide chains: $A$,$B$,and $C$.
During the maturation process,the $C$-peptide,which is an extra stretch of amino acids,is removed from the proinsulin molecule.
This results in the formation of mature insulin,which consists of two polypeptide chains ($A$ and $B$) linked together by disulfide bridges.

(C) Genetic engineering,also known as recombinant $DNA$ technology,involves the manipulation of an organism's genome.
One of its primary objectives is gene therapy,which aims to treat human diseases by introducing functional genes to replace or supplement defective ones.
Therefore,option $C$ is the correct objective,while options $A$ and $B$ are contrary to the goals of biotechnology.

(B) Charles Weissmann was the first scientist to successfully produce interferon using recombinant $DNA$ technology in $1980$.
Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses.
Recombinant $DNA$ technology allows for the mass production of such therapeutic proteins by inserting the gene of interest into a host organism like $E. coli$.

(C) Animal cell culture technology is widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for the production of viral vaccines. Many viruses,which are used to create vaccines,require living host cells to replicate. Since animal cells provide the necessary environment for these viruses to grow,they are cultured in large bioreactors to produce the viral antigens needed for vaccine manufacturing. While insulin and interferons can also be produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology in bacteria or yeast,the production of many complex viral vaccines remains dependent on animal cell culture systems.

(A) Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses. They are used as a biological response modifier in the treatment of various cancers,such as leukemia and melanoma. Biotechnology allows for the mass production of recombinant interferons,which are effective in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells.

(C) $Humulin$ is the trade name for the first genetically engineered human insulin produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology.
It was developed by $Genentech$ and licensed to $Eli$ $Lilly$ and $Company$.
It is identical to the insulin produced by the human pancreas,making it effective for treating diabetes mellitus.

(D) The bacterium $E. coli$ is widely used in biotechnology as a host organism for the production of recombinant proteins.
Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several viruses.
Recombinant human interferon is produced commercially by inserting the human gene for interferon into the genome of $E. coli$ bacteria,which then express the protein during their growth process.

(A) Genetic engineering allows for the production of human insulin in bacteria like $E. coli$. This synthetically produced human insulin is commercially known as $Humulin$. It is identical to the natural insulin produced by the human pancreas,consisting of two polypeptide chains,$A$ and $B$,linked by disulfide bridges.

(D) The genetically engineered bacterium $Pseudomonas \ putida$ was developed by Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty.
This strain is capable of degrading crude oil and is often referred to as a 'superbug'.
It was the first genetically modified organism to be patented for its ability to clean up oil spills.

(B) The first hormone produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology is $Insulin$.
In $1983$,Eli Lilly,an American company,prepared two $DNA$ sequences corresponding to $A$ and $B$ chains of human $Insulin$ and introduced them in plasmids of $E. coli$ to produce $Insulin$ chains.
These chains were then extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form human $Insulin$ (Humulin).

(C) Gene therapy is a technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or cure disease.
The first clinical gene therapy trial was performed in $1990$ on a $4$-year-old girl named Ashanthi DeSilva.
She was suffering from $SCID$ (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency),which is caused due to the defect in the gene for the enzyme Adenosine Deaminase $(ADA)$.
Therefore,the correct option is $C$.

(C) Genetically engineered bacteria are widely used in biotechnology to produce therapeutic proteins. One of the most significant applications is the production of human insulin. Previously,insulin was extracted from the pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs,which often caused allergic reactions in patients. In $1983$,Eli Lilly,an American company,prepared two $DNA$ sequences corresponding to $A$ and $B$ chains of human insulin and introduced them into plasmids of $E. coli$ to produce insulin chains. These chains were then extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form mature human insulin.

(C) Insulin is synthesized in the pancreas as a pro-hormone,which contains an extra stretch called the $C$-peptide.
During the maturation process,this $C$-peptide is removed from the pro-insulin to form mature insulin.
Mature insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains: chain $A$ and chain $B$,which are linked together by disulfide bridges.
Therefore,the $C$-peptide is absent in mature insulin.

(A) Animal cell culture is a fundamental technique in modern biotechnology. It is extensively used for the production of viral vaccines,as many viruses require living animal cells to replicate. While other products like insulin,edible proteins,and interferons can be produced using recombinant $DNA$ technology in microbial systems (like $E. coli$ or yeast),the production of many vaccines still relies heavily on animal cell culture systems to ensure proper viral growth and antigenicity.

(C) The $C$-peptide is an extra stretch of amino acids present in proinsulin that is not found in mature insulin.
Proinsulin consists of three chains: $A$,$B$,and $C$.
During the maturation process,where proinsulin is converted into active insulin,the $C$-peptide is removed.
Therefore,mature insulin consists only of $A$ and $B$ chains linked by disulfide bonds.