Mathematical logic Questions in English

(D) Step $1$: Determine the truth value of statement $p$. Every square is a rectangle is a true statement,so $p = T$.
Step $2$: Determine the truth value of statement $q$. Every rhombus is a kite is a true statement,so $q = T$.
Step $3$: Evaluate $p \rightarrow q$. Since $T \rightarrow T$ is $T$,the truth value is $T$.
Step $4$: Evaluate $p \leftrightarrow q$. Since $T \leftrightarrow T$ is $T$,the truth value is $T$.
Therefore,the truth values are $T, T$.

(D) In the given circuit,the top branch consists of switches $\sim p$ and $q$ connected in series. The Boolean expression for this branch is $(\sim p \wedge q)$.
The bottom branch consists of switches $p$ and $\sim q$ connected in series. The Boolean expression for this branch is $(p \wedge \sim q)$.
Since these two branches are connected in parallel,the total Boolean polynomial for the circuit is the disjunction of the two expressions:
$(\sim p \wedge q) \vee (p \wedge \sim q)$.

(B) Using the distributive law,we have: $x \wedge (x \vee y) = (x \wedge x) \vee (x \wedge y)$.
By the idempotent law,$x \wedge x = x$,so the expression becomes $x \vee (x \wedge y)$.
By the absorption law,$x \vee (x \wedge y) = x$.

(B) The inverse of a conditional statement $P \Rightarrow Q$ is defined as $\sim P \Rightarrow \sim Q$.
Given the proposition $(p \wedge \sim q) \Rightarrow r$,we identify $P = (p \wedge \sim q)$ and $Q = r$.
Therefore,the inverse is $\sim(p \wedge \sim q) \Rightarrow \sim r$.
Using De Morgan's Law,$\sim(p \wedge \sim q)$ is equivalent to $(\sim p \vee \sim(\sim q))$,which simplifies to $(\sim p \vee q)$.
Thus,the inverse is $(\sim p \vee q) \Rightarrow \sim r$.

(C) To determine the nature of the proposition $(p$ $\Rightarrow \sim p) \wedge (\sim p$ $\Rightarrow p)$,we construct a truth table:

$p$	$\sim p$	$p \Rightarrow \sim p$	$\sim p \Rightarrow p$	$(p$ $\Rightarrow \sim p) \wedge (\sim p$ $\Rightarrow p)$
$T$	$F$	$F$	$T$	$F$
$F$	$T$	$T$	$F$	$F$

Since the final column contains only $F$ (False) for all possible truth values of $p$,the proposition is a contradiction.

(B) $(p \wedge q) \vee \sim p = \sim p \vee (p \wedge q)$ (By commutative law)
$= (\sim p \vee p) \wedge (\sim p \vee q)$ (By distributive law)
$= (p \vee \sim p) \wedge (\sim p \vee q)$ (By commutative law)
$= t \wedge (\sim p \vee q)$ (By complement law,where $t$ is a tautology)
$= \sim p \vee q$ (By identity law)

(B) Given truth values are $p = T, q = F, r = F$.
First,evaluate the components:
$\sim q = \sim F = T$
$\sim p = \sim T = F$
Now,evaluate the expressions in the brackets:
$p \wedge \sim q = T \wedge T = T$
$\sim p \vee r = F \vee F = F$
Finally,evaluate the implication:
$(p \wedge \sim q)$ $\rightarrow (\sim p \vee r) = T$ $\rightarrow F = F$.
Thus,the truth value is $F$.

(B) The circuit consists of two switches $p$ and $\sim p$ connected in parallel,which are then connected in series with a switch $q$.
The logical expression for the parallel combination of $p$ and $\sim p$ is $(p \lor \sim p)$.
Since $(p \lor \sim p) = T$ (a tautology,represented as $1$ in switching circuits),the expression becomes $1 \land q$.
Thus,the output is $1 \cdot q = q$.

(A) Using the distributive law,we have:
$(p \vee q) \wedge (p \vee \sim q) = p \vee (q \wedge \sim q)$
By the complement law,$q \wedge \sim q = F$ (where $F$ denotes a contradiction or false statement).
So,the expression becomes $p \vee F$.
Since $F$ is the identity element for the disjunction operator $\vee$,$p \vee F = p$.
Thus,the simplified form is $p$.

(A) The given circuit consists of two parallel blocks connected in series,which are then connected in parallel with a wire (which acts as an open circuit or is not present in the simplified logic).
Looking at the circuit:
$1$. The first block has switches $p$ and $q$ in parallel,represented by $(p \vee q)$.
$2$. The second block has switches $p$ and $r$ in parallel,represented by $(p \vee r)$.
$3$. These two blocks are connected in series,so the expression is $(p \vee q) \wedge (p \vee r)$.
Using the distributive law of Boolean algebra:
$(p \vee q) \wedge (p \vee r) = p \vee (q \wedge r)$.

(C) We know that the implication $A \rightarrow B$ is equivalent to $\sim A \vee B$.
Therefore,$\sim p \rightarrow q \equiv \sim(\sim p) \vee q \equiv p \vee q$.
Now,applying the negation: $\sim(\sim p \rightarrow q) \equiv \sim(p \vee q)$.
By De Morgan's Law,$\sim(p \vee q) \equiv \sim p \wedge \sim q$.

(B) Let $p$ be the statement: "It rains".
Let $q$ be the statement: "$I$ shall go to school".
The given conditional statement is $p \Rightarrow q$.
The negation of a conditional statement $p \Rightarrow q$ is given by $\sim(p \Rightarrow q) \equiv p \wedge \sim q$.
Here,$p \wedge \sim q$ translates to: "It rains and $I$ shall not go to school".
Therefore,the correct option is $B$.

(A) To find the dual of a Boolean expression,we replace $\vee$ with $\wedge$,$\wedge$ with $\vee$,$0$ with $1$,and $1$ with $0$.
Given the expression $\left(x^{\prime} \vee y^{\prime}\right) = x \wedge y$,we replace the operators:
$\vee$ becomes $\wedge$
$\wedge$ becomes $\vee$
Thus,the dual is $\left(x^{\prime} \wedge y^{\prime}\right) = x \vee y$.

(B) To find the dual of a logical statement,we replace $\vee$ with $\wedge$,$\wedge$ with $\vee$,$T$ with $F$,and $F$ with $T$.
Given statement: $[p \vee (\sim q)] \wedge (\sim p)$.
Replacing $\vee$ with $\wedge$ and $\wedge$ with $\vee$,we get:
$[p \wedge (\sim q)] \vee (\sim p)$.

(A) quadratic equation $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$ can have imaginary roots if the discriminant $D = b^2 - 4ac < 0$.
Therefore,the statement '$A$ quadratic equation always has a real root' is false,meaning its truth value is '$F$'.
Option $B$ is true as it represents the permutation formula.
Option $C$ is true because the cube roots of unity are $1, \omega, \omega^2$,which form a $GP$ with common ratio $\omega$.

(D) The symbolic form of the given circuit is $(p \vee \sim q \vee \sim r) \wedge (p \vee (q \wedge r))$.
Applying the distributive law,we get $p \vee [(\sim q \vee \sim r) \wedge (q \wedge r)]$.
Using De Morgan's law,this becomes $p \vee [\sim (q \wedge r) \wedge (q \wedge r)]$.
Applying the complement law,we get $p \vee F$.
Finally,by the identity law,this simplifies to $p$.
Thus,the circuit is equivalent to a circuit with only switch $S_1$.

(C) The given statement $p$ is: $\exists x \in S$ such that $x > 0$.
To find the negation $\sim p$,we apply the rule $\sim(\exists x, P(x)) \equiv \forall x, \sim P(x)$.
$\sim p : \forall x \in S, x \leq 0$.
This means that every rational number $x \in S$ satisfies $x \leq 0$.

(A) statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,but not both.
$(A)$ $ \sqrt{3} $ is a prime number: This is a false statement because $ \sqrt{3} \approx 1.732 $,which is not an integer,and prime numbers must be integers.
$(B)$ The sun is a star: This is a true statement.
$(C)$ Mathematics is interesting: This is an opinion,not a mathematical statement,but in the context of logic,it is often treated as subjective.
$(D)$ $ \sqrt{2} $ is an irrational number: This is a true statement.
Since we are looking for a statement that is not correct (i.e.,false),option $A$ is the correct answer.

(C) The negation of a statement involving the universal quantifier "For every" is formed by replacing it with the existential quantifier "There exists at least one" and negating the predicate.
Given the statement: "For every real number $x$,$x^2+5$ is positive".
The negation is: "There exists at least one real number $x$ such that $x^2+5$ is not positive".

(D) The given statement is of the form $P \implies Q$,where $P$ is "two lines do not intersect in the same plane" and $Q$ is "they are parallel".
The contrapositive of a statement $P \implies Q$ is defined as $\neg Q \implies \neg P$.
Here,$\neg Q$ is "two lines are not parallel" and $\neg P$ is "two lines intersect in the same plane".
Therefore,the contrapositive is: "If two lines are not parallel,then they intersect in the same plane."
This corresponds to option $D$.

(D) The given statement is of the form "For all $x$,$P(x)$",where $P(x)$ is the property that a function is differentiable.
The negation of the statement "All $P$ are $Q$" is "Some $P$ are not $Q$".
Therefore,the negation of "All continuous functions are differentiable" is "Some continuous functions are not differentiable".
Thus,the correct option is $D$.

(A) Let $p$ be the statement: "$72$ is divisible by $2$ and $3$".
This can be written as $p = q \wedge r$,where $q$ is "$72$ is divisible by $2$" and $r$ is "$72$ is divisible by $3$".
The negation of a conjunction is given by De Morgan's Law: $\sim(q \wedge r) \equiv \sim q \vee \sim r$.
Here,$\sim q$ is "$72$ is not divisible by $2$" and $\sim r$ is "$72$ is not divisible by $3$".
Therefore,the negation is "$72$ is not divisible by $2$ or $72$ is not divisible by $3$".

(D) Let $p: x$ is a prime number and $q: x$ is an odd number.
The given statement is $p \rightarrow q$.
The converse of the statement is $q \rightarrow p$.
The contrapositive of the converse $(q \rightarrow p)$ is $\sim p \rightarrow \sim q$.
Thus,the contrapositive of the converse is: "If $x$ is not a prime number,then $x$ is not odd."

(B) The given proposition is $(p \wedge \sim q) \rightarrow r$.
The inverse of a conditional statement $A \rightarrow B$ is defined as $\sim A \rightarrow \sim B$.
Here,$A = (p \wedge \sim q)$ and $B = r$.
Therefore,the inverse is $\sim (p \wedge \sim q) \rightarrow \sim r$.
Using De Morgan's Law,$\sim (p \wedge \sim q) \equiv \sim p \vee \sim (\sim q) \equiv \sim p \vee q$.
Thus,the inverse is $(\sim p) \vee q \rightarrow (\sim r)$.

(B) We know that the implication $A \rightarrow B$ is logically equivalent to $\sim A \vee B$.
Applying this rule to $p \rightarrow \sim q$,we get:
$p \rightarrow \sim q \equiv \sim p \vee \sim q$.
This can also be verified using the truth table:
| $p$ | $q$ | $\sim p$ | $\sim q$ | $p \rightarrow \sim q$ | $\sim p \vee \sim q$ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| $T$ | $T$ | $F$ | $F$ | $F$ | $F$ |
| $T$ | $F$ | $F$ | $T$ | $T$ | $T$ |
| $F$ | $T$ | $T$ | $F$ | $T$ | $T$ |
| $F$ | $F$ | $T$ | $T$ | $T$ | $T$ |
Since the truth values of $p \rightarrow \sim q$ and $\sim p \vee \sim q$ are identical for all possible truth values of $p$ and $q$,they are logically equivalent.

(D) To find the negation of $p \rightarrow (\sim p \vee q)$,we use the logical equivalence $\sim(A \rightarrow B) \equiv A \wedge \sim B$.
Here,$A = p$ and $B = (\sim p \vee q)$.
Therefore,$\sim[p \rightarrow (\sim p \vee q)] \equiv p \wedge \sim(\sim p \vee q)$.
Using De Morgan's Law,$\sim(\sim p \vee q) \equiv \sim(\sim p) \wedge \sim q \equiv p \wedge \sim q$.
Substituting this back,we get $p \wedge (p \wedge \sim q)$.
Since $p \wedge p \equiv p$,the expression simplifies to $p \wedge \sim q$.
Thus,the negation is $p \wedge \sim q$.

(A) We evaluate each option using truth tables:
$(a)$ Let $x = (p \wedge \sim q)$ and $y = (p \rightarrow q)$. The truth table shows that $(x \leftrightarrow y)$ is not a tautology (it is a contingency).
$(b)$ This is a standard tautology known as the Law of Hypothetical Syllogism.
$(c)$ This is a standard logical equivalence (Distributive Law of implication over conjunction).
$(d)$ This is a standard logical equivalence for the negation of a biconditional statement.
Therefore,option $(a)$ is not true.

(D) We need to find the negation of the statement $p \wedge (q \rightarrow \sim r)$.
Using De Morgan's Law,$\sim(A \wedge B) = \sim A \vee \sim B$:
$\sim(p \wedge (q$ $\rightarrow \sim r)) = \sim p \vee \sim(q$ $\rightarrow \sim r)$
Using the implication rule $\sim(A \rightarrow B) = A \wedge \sim B$:
$\sim p \vee (q \wedge \sim(\sim r))$
Using the double negation law $\sim(\sim r) = r$:
$\sim p \vee (q \wedge r)$
Thus,the correct option is $D$.

(D) The given conditional statement is $p \rightarrow \sim q$.
The contrapositive of a conditional statement $A \rightarrow B$ is $\sim B \rightarrow \sim A$.
Applying this to $p \rightarrow \sim q$,the contrapositive is $\sim(\sim q) \rightarrow \sim p$,which simplifies to $q \rightarrow \sim p$.
The converse of a conditional statement $A \rightarrow B$ is $B \rightarrow A$.
Applying this to the contrapositive $q \rightarrow \sim p$,the converse is $\sim p \rightarrow q$.

(B) Let $p$ be the statement "$2$ is prime".
Let $q$ be the statement "$3$ is odd".
The given proposition is $p \rightarrow q$.
The negation of an implication $p \rightarrow q$ is given by $\sim(p \rightarrow q) \equiv p \wedge \sim q$.
Here,$p$ is "$2$ is prime" and $\sim q$ is "$3$ is not odd".
Therefore,the negation is "$2$ is prime and $3$ is not odd".

(C) The given statement is a universal quantification: "For all $x, y \in \mathbb{R}, x+y=y+x$."
To find the negation of a statement involving the universal quantifier "For all" $(\forall)$,we replace it with the existential quantifier "There exists" (or "For some") and negate the predicate.
The negation of "For all $x$ and $y, P(x, y)$" is "There exist $x$ and $y$ such that $\neg P(x, y)$."
Here,the predicate $P(x, y)$ is $x+y=y+x$.
The negation of $x+y=y+x$ is $x+y \neq y+x$.
Therefore,the negation of the statement is "For some real numbers $x$ and $y, x+y \neq y+x$."

(A) Given the expression: $ \sim[(\sim p) \wedge q] $.
By applying De Morgan's Law,which states that $ \sim(A \wedge B) = (\sim A) \vee (\sim B) $:
$ \sim[(\sim p) \wedge q] = \sim(\sim p) \vee (\sim q) $.
Since $ \sim(\sim p) = p $,the expression simplifies to:
$ p \vee (\sim q) $.
Therefore,the correct option is $ A $.

(D) The given statement is of the form "If $P$,then $Q$",where $P$ is "$x$ is a prime number" and $Q$ is "$x$ is odd".
The contrapositive of the statement "If $P$,then $Q$" is defined as "If $\neg Q$,then $\neg P$".
Here,$\neg Q$ is "$x$ is not odd" and $\neg P$ is "$x$ is not a prime number".
Therefore,the contrapositive statement is "If $x$ is not odd,then $x$ is not a prime number".