Disorders of the Excretory System Questions in English

(B) In a patient with $Diabetes \text{ } mellitus$, the body is unable to utilize glucose effectively due to insulin deficiency or resistance.
When a patient is on a carbohydrate-free diet, the body undergoes gluconeogenesis to maintain blood glucose levels.
During this process, amino acids are catabolized in the liver to produce glucose, which is then excreted in the urine because the body cannot store or utilize it properly.
Therefore, the correct explanation is that amino acids are catabolized in the liver.

(B) Kidney stones, also known as renal calculi, are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside the kidneys.
The most common composition of these crystals includes calcium salts, such as calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate, often combined with uric acid.
Among the given options, calcium oxalate is the most clinically significant component found in kidney stones.
Therefore, the correct answer is $B$.

(D) The primary function of the kidneys is to filter metabolic waste products from the blood,specifically nitrogenous wastes like urea.
When the kidneys are not functioning properly (renal failure),they are unable to filter urea effectively from the blood.
As a result,urea accumulates in the blood,leading to a condition known as uremia,which can reach dangerous levels if left untreated.
Therefore,the correct option is $D$.

(D) Kidney stones (renal calculi) are formed due to the crystallization and deposition of insoluble salts within the kidney.
Common substances involved in stone formation include uric acid,calcium oxalate,and calcium phosphate.
Therefore,the correct option is $(d)$.

(D) During prolonged fasting,the body lacks a sufficient supply of carbohydrates for energy.
To meet its energy requirements,the body begins to break down stored fats through a process called lipolysis.
This leads to the production of fatty acids,which are then converted into ketone bodies (such as acetoacetate,beta-hydroxybutyrate,and acetone) in the liver.
When the concentration of these ketone bodies in the blood exceeds the renal threshold,they are excreted in the urine,a condition known as ketonuria.

(C) Uremia is a condition characterized by an abnormally high level of waste products,specifically urea,in the blood.
This occurs due to the malfunction or failure of the kidneys to filter these nitrogenous wastes effectively from the blood.
Therefore,it is a disorder directly associated with kidney failure.

(B) When excess water is lost from the tissues and not restored by the kidneys,the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid increases.
Due to the hypertonic environment created around the cells,water moves out of the cells via osmosis.
As a result,the cells lose their internal water content,causing them to shrivel (crenation) and eventually die.

(D) The primary functions of the kidneys include the filtration of blood,removal of metabolic wastes like urea,regulation of blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin system,and maintenance of acid-base balance (pH regulation) of body fluids.
Kidneys do not secrete antibiotics. Antibiotics are pharmacological agents introduced into the body to fight infections and are typically metabolized by the liver and excreted by the kidneys,but they are not produced or secreted by the renal tissue itself.

(B) . Nocturia is a condition associated with renal disease in which the volume of urine produced at night increases significantly,compelling the individual to wake up to urinate.

(B) The process of blood dialysis is commonly referred to as an $Artificial \text{ } kidney$ or $hemodialysis$.
It is a medical procedure used to filter waste products, excess salts, and water from the blood of a person whose kidneys are damaged or non-functional.
Therefore, the correct option is $(b)$.

(A) Haemodialysis is a medical procedure used to remove excess waste products,such as urea and uric acid,from the blood when the kidneys are unable to function properly.
This condition,characterized by the accumulation of nitrogenous wastes in the blood,is known as $Uremia$.
During the process,the patient's blood is passed through a dialyzer where waste molecules diffuse into the dialysis fluid,and the purified blood is then returned to the patient's body.

(C) Normally,albumin cannot pass through the filtration slits of the glomerulus due to its large molecular size.
However,in pathological conditions such as kidney disease,inflammation,or damage to the Malpighian corpuscles (glomerulus and Bowman's capsule),the filtration membrane becomes compromised.
This damage increases the permeability of the filtration barrier,allowing large protein molecules like albumin to leak into the filtrate,a condition known as albuminuria.

(D) Dialysis is a medical procedure used to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to function properly.
It acts as an artificial kidney to filter the blood in patients suffering from kidney failure or renal failure.
Therefore,the correct option is $D$.

(D) Jaundice is a condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin and eyes due to high levels of bilirubin in the blood.
Bilirubin is a bile pigment formed by the breakdown of red blood cells.
When the liver is unable to process or excrete bilirubin efficiently,or when there is an obstruction in the bile ducts,bilirubin levels rise in the blood and it is excreted in the urine,causing it to turn dark yellow or brown.
Therefore,the presence of bile pigments in the urine is a clinical indicator of jaundice.

(B) The term $haematuria$ refers to the presence of blood or red blood cells in the urine.
It is often a clinical sign of underlying conditions such as urinary tract infections,kidney stones,or other renal disorders.

(A) The presence of glucose (sugar) in the urine is known as glycosuria.
This condition occurs in $Diabetes \ mellitus$ due to high blood glucose levels exceeding the renal threshold,which prevents the kidneys from reabsorbing all the filtered glucose.

(B) The artificial kidney (hemodialyzer) functions on the principle of dialysis.
Dialysis is a process of separating small solute particles from macromolecular colloids using a selectively permeable membrane.
In this process,the patient's blood is passed through a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by a dialyzing fluid,which has the same composition as plasma except for the nitrogenous wastes.
Due to the concentration gradient,nitrogenous wastes move from the blood into the dialyzing fluid,thereby cleaning the blood.

(C) Continuous Ambulatory Peritoneal Dialysis $(CAPD)$ is a type of dialysis where the patient's own peritoneum acts as the natural semi-permeable dialysing membrane.
In this process,a sterile dialysate solution is introduced into the peritoneal cavity through a permanent catheter.
The peritoneum allows for the exchange of waste products and excess fluid from the blood into the dialysate via diffusion and osmosis.
Therefore,the correct answer is the peritoneum membrane.

(C) The presence of red blood cells $(RBCs)$ in the urine is medically termed as $Hematuria$.
$Proteinuria$ refers to the presence of excess proteins in the urine.
$Alkaptonuria$ is a rare genetic disorder where the body cannot process the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine,leading to the accumulation of homogentisic acid.
$Urolithiasis$ refers to the formation of stones in the urinary tract.

(C) kidney stone,also known as renal calculus,is a hard mass formed from crystals that precipitate out of the urine.
These crystals are typically composed of chemical compounds such as calcium oxalate,calcium phosphate,or uric acid.
They often form in the renal pelvis or calyces of the kidney when the concentration of these substances in the urine becomes too high.

(A) Diuresis refers to an increased production and excretion of urine by the kidneys.
This condition can be caused by various factors,including the consumption of diuretics (like caffeine or alcohol),high fluid intake,or certain pathological states such as diabetes mellitus or diabetes insipidus.
Therefore,the primary characteristic of diuresis is an increased volume of urine excretion.

(D) Bright's disease $(Nephritis)$ is the inflammation of the kidney,specifically involving the glomeruli,often caused by a streptococcal bacterial infection.
In this condition,the filtration barrier of the glomerulus is damaged,allowing blood cells and proteins to pass into the urine,a condition known as haematuria.
Due to the damage to the nephrons,the glomerular filtration rate $(GFR)$ decreases,leading to an accumulation of nitrogenous wastes like urea in the blood (uraemia).
Therefore,all the mentioned symptoms can be associated with the progression of the disease.

(B) Isothenuria is a condition where the kidneys lose the ability to concentrate or dilute urine.
In this state, the urine osmolality remains fixed and is similar to that of the plasma, which is approximately $300$ $\text{mOsm/L}$.
This occurs due to a significant reduction in the number of functional nephrons, impairing the kidney's ability to perform water conservation or elimination effectively.

(C) Diabetes insipidus is a condition caused by a deficiency of the antidiuretic hormone $(ADH)$,also known as vasopressin,which is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
$ADH$ is responsible for the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons in the kidneys.
In the absence of sufficient $ADH$,the kidneys cannot reabsorb water effectively,leading to the excretion of large volumes of dilute urine.
$A$ person suffering from this condition typically passes $3$ to $20$ litres of urine per day,which is significantly higher than the normal range of $1$ to $2$ litres.

(A) In diabetes mellitus,the blood glucose level rises significantly (hyperglycemia).
When blood glucose exceeds the renal threshold (approximately $180 \ mg/dL$),the kidneys cannot reabsorb all the glucose from the filtrate.
This excess glucose is excreted in the urine (glycosuria).
Glucose is an osmotically active substance,so it draws water with it into the urine,leading to increased urine volume (polyuria).
To compensate for this excessive loss of water and to prevent dehydration,the body triggers the thirst mechanism,causing the patient to drink water more frequently (polydipsia).

(A) The presence of red blood cells $(RBC)$ in the urine is medically termed as Hematuria.
$Urolithiasis$ refers to the formation of stones in the urinary tract.
$Nephritis$ is the inflammation of the kidneys.
$Proteinuria$ refers to the presence of excess proteins in the urine.

(C) The failure of the kidneys to produce urine is medically termed as $Anuria$.
$Anuria$ is defined as the complete cessation of urine production,typically defined as a urine output of less than $100 \ mL$ per day.
$Creatinine$ is a waste product in the blood.
$Hematuria$ refers to the presence of blood in the urine.
$Alkaptonuria$ is a rare genetic disorder where the body cannot process certain amino acids.

(D) The liver is the primary site for glycogen storage,but excessive alcohol consumption leads to the accumulation of fat within liver cells,resulting in fatty liver syndrome.
As the condition progresses,the liver cells are gradually replaced by fibrous connective tissue,causing the liver to harden and shrink.
This irreversible stage of liver degeneration is clinically known as $Cirrhosis$.

(C) $Diabetes \text{ } insipidus$ is a condition caused by the deficiency of $Antidiuretic \text{ } Hormone$ $(ADH)$ or $Vasopressin$, which is secreted by the posterior pituitary gland.
$ADH$ is responsible for the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons.
In the absence of $ADH$, the kidneys are unable to reabsorb water effectively, leading to the excretion of large volumes of highly dilute (watery) urine.
Since the urine does not contain excess glucose (unlike $Diabetes \text{ } mellitus$), it is tasteless.
Therefore, the urine is tasteless and dilute.

(B) The presence of glucose (glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) in the urine is a characteristic clinical feature of $Diabetes \text{ } mellitus$.
In $Diabetes \text{ } mellitus$, the body is unable to utilize glucose effectively due to a lack of insulin or insulin resistance, leading to high blood glucose levels.
When blood glucose exceeds the renal threshold, it is excreted in the urine.
Simultaneously, the body begins to break down fats for energy, producing ketone bodies as byproducts, which are also excreted in the urine.

(B) Kidney stones (renal calculi) are solid masses made of crystals.
They are most commonly formed due to the crystallization of calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate within the kidney.
These stones can cause severe pain and obstruction in the urinary tract.
Therefore,the correct answer is calcium oxalate.

(C) Uremia is a condition characterized by the accumulation of urea in the blood. This occurs when the kidneys are unable to filter waste products effectively. High levels of urea are toxic to the body and can lead to kidney failure. Therefore,it is a serious medical condition that requires treatment,such as hemodialysis.

(B) Dialysis is a medical procedure used to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys are not functioning properly. This process is performed using a machine that acts as an artificial kidney,also known as a hemodialyzer. Therefore,blood dialysis is referred to as an artificial kidney.

(B) The presence of $RBC$ (red blood cells) in the urine is medically termed as $Hematuria$.
$Anuria$ refers to the failure of the kidneys to produce urine.
$Glycosuria$ refers to the presence of glucose in the urine,often associated with diabetes mellitus.
$Ketonuria$ refers to the presence of ketone bodies in the urine,which occurs during fat metabolism or starvation.

(B) Kidney failure leads to the inability of the kidneys to filter waste products from the blood effectively.
When the kidneys fail,urea,which is a nitrogenous waste product,is not excreted and instead accumulates in the blood.
This clinical condition,characterized by high levels of urea in the blood,is known as $Uremia$.
$Urochrome$ is a pigment that gives urine its yellow color.
$Uricotelism$ and $Ureotelism$ are modes of nitrogenous waste excretion in different organisms.

(A) Hemodialysis is a medical procedure used to remove excess waste products and fluids from the blood when the kidneys are unable to perform this function effectively.
Patients with kidney failure often accumulate high levels of urea in their blood,a condition known as $Uremia$.
During hemodialysis,the patient's blood is passed through a dialyzer (artificial kidney) where waste products like urea are removed via diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane.
Therefore,hemodialysis is specifically used to treat patients suffering from $Uremia$.

(C) The condition where the kidneys fail to produce urine or produce a negligible amount (less than $100 \ mL$ per day) is known as $Anuria$.
$Creatinine$ is a waste product in the blood.
$Hematuria$ refers to the presence of blood in the urine.
$Ketonuria$ refers to the presence of ketone bodies in the urine,often associated with diabetes mellitus.

(C) Ketonuria is a medical condition characterized by the presence of ketone bodies in the urine.
Ketone bodies (such as acetoacetate,beta-hydroxybutyrate,and acetone) are produced by the liver during the metabolism of fats when glucose is not available as an energy source.
This condition is commonly associated with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus or prolonged fasting,where the body shifts to burning fat for energy.

(C) The presence of albumin in the urine is known as albuminuria.
Normally,the glomerular filtration barrier (consisting of the glomerular capillary endothelium,basement membrane,and podocytes of Bowman's capsule) prevents large proteins like albumin from passing into the filtrate.
Damage to the Malpighian corpuscle (specifically the glomerular filtration membrane) increases the permeability of the barrier,allowing albumin to leak into the filtrate and subsequently into the urine.
Therefore,the correct option is $C$.

(B) The presence of $RBC$ (red blood cells) in the urine is medically termed as $Hematuria$.
$Proteinuria$ refers to the presence of excess proteins in the urine.
$Alkaptonuria$ is a rare genetic disorder where the body cannot process the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.
$Uremia$ refers to the accumulation of urea in the blood due to kidney failure.

(D) Osteomalacia is a condition that weakens bones and makes them prone to fractures.
It is primarily caused by a deficiency of Vitamin $D$,which is essential for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
When Vitamin $D$ levels are low,the body cannot absorb enough calcium from the diet,leading to the softening of bones.
Therefore,the correct option is $D$.

(D) Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) due to a deficiency or ineffective action of the hormone insulin.
When blood glucose levels exceed the renal threshold (approximately $180 \ mg/dL$),the kidneys are unable to reabsorb all the glucose from the filtrate.
Consequently,excess glucose is excreted in the urine,a condition known as glycosuria.
Therefore,the presence of sugar in the urine is a diagnostic indicator of diabetes mellitus.

(B) In $Diabetes \text{ } Mellitus$, the body does not produce enough insulin or cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
This leads to high levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood (hyperglycemia).
When blood glucose levels exceed the renal threshold, the kidneys cannot reabsorb all the glucose, and it is excreted in the urine (glycosuria).
Glucose is an osmotically active substance; as it is excreted in the urine, it draws water along with it through osmosis, leading to excessive urination (polyuria).
To compensate for this significant loss of water, the patient experiences excessive thirst (polydipsia) and drinks more water.

(B) $ADH$ (Antidiuretic Hormone),also known as vasopressin,is synthesized by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland.
It plays a crucial role in water reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts of the nephrons in the kidneys.
$A$ deficiency of $ADH$ leads to the inability of the kidneys to conserve water,resulting in the excretion of large volumes of dilute urine and excessive thirst.
This condition is known as Diabetes insipidus.

(C) In patients with diabetes mellitus,the body is unable to utilize glucose efficiently due to a lack of insulin or insulin resistance. Even when a patient is on a carbohydrate-free diet,the body undergoes gluconeogenesis. During this process,the liver converts non-carbohydrate sources,such as amino acids (derived from protein breakdown),into glucose. This newly synthesized glucose enters the bloodstream,raising blood sugar levels,and is subsequently excreted in the urine because the kidneys cannot reabsorb the excess glucose.

(C) Cirrhosis is a chronic disease of the liver characterized by the replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue (fibrosis).
This condition is often caused by long-term exposure to toxins such as alcohol,chronic hepatitis infections,or fatty liver disease.
As the scar tissue builds up,the liver's ability to function properly,such as filtering blood and producing bile,is significantly impaired.
Therefore,cirrhosis is specifically associated with the liver.

(A) The inflammation of the glomeruli of the kidney is medically termed as $Glomerulonephritis$.
$Renal calculi$ refers to the formation of stones in the kidney.
$Uremia$ is the condition characterized by the accumulation of urea in the blood due to kidney failure.
$Arteriosclerosis$ is the hardening and thickening of the walls of the arteries.

(B) Uremia is a medical condition characterized by the accumulation of nitrogenous wastes,specifically urea,in the blood. This occurs due to the malfunctioning of the kidneys,which are unable to filter these waste products effectively. If left untreated,it can lead to kidney failure and requires treatments like hemodialysis.

(C) The presence of glucose in the urine is known as Glycosuria.
This condition is often an indicator of Diabetes Mellitus,where the blood glucose level exceeds the renal threshold,causing the kidneys to excrete the excess glucose into the urine.
Ketonuria refers to the presence of ketone bodies in the urine,which is a different condition.
Therefore,the correct term for the presence of glucose in urine is Glycosuria.

(D) is true: Malfunctioning of kidneys leads to the accumulation of urea in the blood,which is a condition known as uremia.
$R$ is false: During hemodialysis,blood is drained from a convenient artery and pumped into a dialyzing unit after adding an anticoagulant,such as heparin,not 'anti-heparin'. Adding 'anti-heparin' would cause the blood to clot,which is the opposite of the required procedure.