Technology for Medical Application Questions in English

(A) An artificial pacemaker is a medical device used to regulate the heart's rhythm.
During the implantation procedure,the lead (electrode) is typically inserted through a vein and guided into the $Right$ $ventricle$ of the heart.
This position allows the electrode to directly stimulate the heart muscle to maintain a proper heartbeat,especially in patients with conditions like heart block or bradycardia.

(B) The first artificial cardiac pacemaker was invented by the American cardiologist $A. S. Hyman$ in $1932$. He developed an 'artificial pacemaker' to stimulate the heart, which he called an 'artificial pacemaker'. While other scientists like $Walton$ $Lillehei$ contributed to the development of early pacemakers, $A. S. Hyman$ is credited with the invention of the first device.

(A) The first successful implantable cardiac pacemaker was developed and introduced by $William$ $Chardack$ in collaboration with $Wilson$ $Greatbatch$ and $Andrew$ $Gage$ in $1960$. This device revolutionized the treatment of heart block and other cardiac arrhythmias by providing a reliable electrical stimulus to maintain a normal heart rhythm.

(C) An $Intra-aortic$ $\text{balloon pump} (IABP)$ is a mechanical device that helps the heart pump blood. It is a balloon that is inserted into the aorta and inflated and deflated in synchronization with the cardiac cycle to increase coronary blood flow and decrease the workload of the heart.
Artificial valves are used to replace damaged heart valves.
Lasers are used in various surgical procedures but do not assist in pumping blood.
Pacemakers are used to regulate the heart's electrical rhythm, not to assist in the mechanical pumping of blood.

(B) An intra-aortic balloon pump $(IABP)$ is a mechanical device used to assist the heart in pumping blood.
It works on the principle of counterpulsation.
The balloon is inflated during diastole to increase coronary artery perfusion.
The balloon is deflated just before the onset of systole (isovolumetric contraction) to reduce afterload,which decreases the workload on the left ventricle and improves cardiac output.

(C) $Vascular \text{ graft}$ is a surgical procedure that redirects blood flow from one area of the body to another by replacing or bypassing a damaged or diseased blood vessel.
When an artificial material (synthetic graft) is used to replace an artery, it is specifically referred to as a $Vascular \text{ graft}$.
$Autograft$ involves using tissue from the patient's own body.
$Allograft$ involves using tissue from another individual of the same species.
$Xenograft$ involves using tissue from a different species.

(D) Artificial arteries,also known as vascular grafts,are medical devices used to replace or bypass damaged or blocked blood vessels.
These grafts must be biocompatible,durable,and flexible to withstand blood pressure.
$Dacron$ (a type of polyester) and $Teflon$ (polytetrafluoroethylene or $PTFE$) are the most commonly used synthetic materials for manufacturing these artificial arteries due to their excellent mechanical properties and low thrombogenicity.
Therefore,both $Dacron$ and $Teflon$ are used for this purpose.

(B) The first successful open heart surgery using a heart-lung machine was performed by Dr. John Gibbon on May $6, 1953$.
He operated on an $18$-year-old woman to repair an atrial septal defect.
This milestone marked the beginning of modern cardiac surgery.

(D) An oxygenator is a medical device capable of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood of a patient during surgical procedures that require the heart and lungs to be stopped.
This device is a critical component of the heart-lung machine used during open heart surgery.
During the procedure,the patient's blood is diverted from the heart and lungs to the oxygenator,where it is oxygenated and then returned to the body,allowing the surgeon to operate on a still heart.

(D) Oxygenators are medical devices used to provide oxygen to the blood during procedures like cardiopulmonary bypass.
In these devices,a mixture of gases is often used to maintain physiological balance.
The mixture typically consists of oxygen $(O_2)$ and a small percentage of carbon dioxide $(CO_2)$.
The addition of $CO_2$ (usually in the range of $2-5\%$) helps in maintaining the normal $pH$ of the blood and prevents hypocapnia (low levels of $CO_2$),which can cause cerebral vasoconstriction.
Therefore,the correct percentage of $CO_2$ in this mixture is $2-5\%$.

(C) Perfluorocarbons $(PFCs)$ are synthetic,chemically inert compounds that have the ability to dissolve large amounts of oxygen. Due to this property,they are used in medical research as oxygen carriers and can serve as blood substitutes in specific clinical situations to transport oxygen to tissues when donor blood is unavailable or unsuitable.

(A) The first functional kidney dialysis machine (hemodialysis machine) was invented by the Dutch physician $Willem$ $\text{Kolff}$ in $1943$.
He successfully used a rotating drum made of sausage casings to filter waste products from the blood of patients with kidney failure.

(B) The first successful artificial kidney,known as the rotating drum dialyzer,was developed by the Dutch physician Willem Kolff in $1943$. However,the first clinically successful and widely recognized version of the artificial kidney that saved lives was introduced in $1945$. Therefore,$1945$ is the historically accepted year for the invention of the practical artificial kidney.

(A) An artificial kidney,also known as a hemodialyzer,works on the principle of dialysis.
It facilitates the removal of nitrogenous waste products from the blood through a semi-permeable membrane.
This process is based on the diffusion of solutes from an area of higher concentration (blood) to an area of lower concentration (dialysate fluid) across the membrane.
Since this movement occurs along the concentration gradient without the expenditure of cellular energy,it is a passive filtration process.
Unlike the natural kidney,an artificial kidney cannot perform active transport or selective reabsorption of essential nutrients like glucose,amino acids,or water.

(C) An artificial kidney,also known as a hemodialyzer,is used for the process of hemodialysis.
This procedure is required when both kidneys fail to function properly,leading to the accumulation of toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea in the blood.
If only one kidney is damaged or not working properly,the other healthy kidney can compensate for the loss of function,and dialysis is generally not required.
Therefore,the condition that necessitates the use of an artificial kidney is the failure of both kidneys.

(A) Haemodialysis is a medical procedure used for patients with kidney failure.
In this process,the patient's blood is passed through a machine called a dialyzer (artificial kidney).
The dialyzer contains a semi-permeable membrane that allows waste products like urea,creatinine,and excess salts to diffuse out of the blood into the dialysate fluid.
After the blood is purified,it is returned to the patient's body.
Therefore,it is a technique used to remove waste products from the blood.

(B) The Jaipur foot is a rubber-based prosthetic leg for people with below-knee amputations. It was developed in $1968$ by Dr. $P. K. Sethi$,an orthopedic surgeon,and Masterji Ram Chandra Sharma,a craftsman. This innovation is widely recognized for its affordability,durability,and ability to allow users to walk barefoot,squat,and sit cross-legged.

(B) The Jaipur foot is a prosthetic limb developed in $1968$ by Dr. $P$.$K$. Sethi and Masterji Ram Chandra Sharma. It is designed to be durable,water-resistant,and suitable for the Indian lifestyle,such as squatting and sitting cross-legged. The foot is constructed using a combination of solid rubber for the outer layer and a wooden block or plastic (specifically polyurethane) for the internal structure to provide flexibility and strength.

(A) The $SA$ node (Sinoatrial node) is known as the natural pacemaker of the human heart because it generates the electrical impulses that initiate the heartbeat.
If the $SA$ node becomes defective or fails to function properly,it leads to conditions like bradycardia or heart block,where the heart rate becomes abnormally slow or irregular.
In such cases,an artificial pacemaker is surgically implanted to provide the necessary electrical stimulation to maintain a normal heart rhythm.

(C) Magnetic Resonance Imaging $(MRI)$ is based on the principle of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance $(NMR)$.
In $1946$,Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell independently discovered the phenomenon of $NMR$ in liquids and solids.
For this fundamental discovery,they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in $1952$.
Therefore,the correct option is $C$.

(B) Ultrasound imaging utilizes high-frequency sound waves to create images of internal body structures.
These waves are generated using a transducer that contains crystals exhibiting the $Piezoelectric$ $effect$.
When an alternating electric current is applied to these crystals,they vibrate rapidly,producing high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound).
Therefore,the correct option is $B$.

(A) pacemaker is a medical device used to regulate the heart's rhythm. The electrode lead of a pacemaker is designed to be biocompatible and durable. It typically consists of a fine metallic spring (often made of alloys like $Pt-Ir$) that is insulated or ensheathed in a thin layer of a biocompatible polymer,such as $Plastic$ (specifically,silicone or polyurethane). This coating prevents electrical leakage and protects the surrounding tissue from direct metallic contact.

(C) Blood transfusion is a life-saving procedure,but it carries the risk of transmitting infectious diseases if the donor blood is not properly screened.
$AIDS$ (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus $(HIV)$,which can be transmitted through contaminated blood.
Hepatitis $B$ is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can also be transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood.
Therefore,both $AIDS$ and Hepatitis $B$ are serious diseases that can be transmitted through improper blood transfusion.

(B) Positron emission tomography $(PET)$ is a nuclear medicine functional imaging technique.
It is highly effective because it utilizes isotopes of basic body elements (such as $C^{11}$,$N^{13}$,$O^{15}$,and $F^{18}$) that have very short half-lives.
These isotopes are incorporated into biologically active molecules (like glucose),allowing for the visualization of metabolic processes in real-time.
The short half-life minimizes the radiation exposure to the patient,making it a safe and preferred diagnostic tool.

(C) The electrocardiograph $(ECG)$ is a medical device used to record the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time.
It was developed by the Dutch physiologist $Willem \ Einthoven$ in the early $20^{th}$ century.
For his invention of the $ECG$,he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in $1924$.

(B) The $Sinuatrial$ $node$ $(SAN)$ is the natural pacemaker of the heart,located in the wall of the right atrium. It generates the electrical impulses that initiate the heartbeat. When the $SAN$ fails to function normally,an artificial pacemaker is implanted to replace its function. Therefore,the artificial pacemaker is grafted at the site of the $Sinuatrial$ $node$ to restore the normal rhythm of the heart.

(A) The correct match is $A$. The National Institute of Virology $(NIV)$ is located in Pune,Maharashtra.
- The National Institute of Communicable Diseases $(NICD)$,now known as the National Centre for Disease Control $(NCDC)$,is located in Delhi.
- The Central Drug Research Institute $(CDRI)$ is located in Lucknow,not Kasauli.
- The National Institute of Nutrition $(NIN)$ is located in Hyderabad,not Mumbai.

(C) Electron beam therapy $(EBT)$ is a form of external beam radiation therapy where high-energy electrons are used to treat cancer.
These electrons are generated by a linear accelerator and are used to treat superficial tumors,such as those found in the skin or near the surface of the body,because they have limited penetration depth.
Therefore,it is primarily used for treating certain types of cancer.

(A) Magnetic Resonance Imaging $(MRI)$ relies on the magnetic properties of hydrogen nuclei (protons).
In biological tissues,these protons are primarily found in water molecules $(H_2O)$ and in the hydrocarbon chains of lipids (fats).
Specifically,the protons in the long alkane chains of fatty acid moieties contribute significantly to the signal intensity in $MR$ images,especially in adipose (fatty) tissue.
Therefore,the correct answer is the long alkane chain protons of the fatty acid moieties.

(C) Electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate $DNA$,$RNA$,or protein molecules based on their size and electrical charge.
In this process,an electric current is passed through a gel matrix containing the molecules.
Since molecules like $DNA$ are negatively charged,they migrate toward the positive electrode (anode) through the pores of the gel.
The smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix compared to larger ones,allowing for effective separation.

(D) Interferons are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of several pathogens,such as viruses,bacteria,parasites,or tumor cells.
In biotechnology,recombinant $DNA$ technology is used to produce Interferons (specifically $IFN-\alpha$) on a large scale.
These are widely used in the treatment of various types of cancers,such as hairy cell leukemia,melanoma,and Kaposi's sarcoma,as they help in inhibiting the growth of cancer cells and boosting the immune system's response against them.
$HGH$ (Human Growth Hormone) is used for growth disorders,and $TSH$ (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) is used for thyroid regulation,while Terramycin is an antibiotic.

(C) The $C.T$ scan (Computed Tomography scan) was invented by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield in $1972$.
He shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in $1979$ with Allan McLeod Cormack for the development of computer-assisted tomography.

(A) $X$-rays were discovered by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in $1895$.
He was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics in $1901$ for this discovery.
$X$-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation with high energy and short wavelengths,widely used in medical imaging and diagnostic procedures.

(B) Magnetic Resonance Imaging $(MRI)$ is a medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves (which are non-ionizing radiation) to generate detailed images of the organs in the body.
$CT$ scans and $X$-rays use ionizing radiation ($X$-rays),which can be harmful to tissues.
$PET$ (Positron Emission Tomography) uses radioactive tracers that emit positrons,which is also a form of ionizing radiation.
Therefore,$MRI$ is the correct technique that avoids ionizing radiation.

(A) Computed Tomography $(CT)$ scan uses $X$-rays to generate detailed images of the internal structures of the body.
These $X$-rays are passed through the body from different angles,and a computer processes the data to create a $3D$ (three-dimensional) image of the specific organ or tissue.
Therefore,the correct answer is $X$-rays and $3D$ image.

(B) $CT$ scan (Computed Tomography scan) uses $X$-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body.
It combines a series of $X$-ray images taken from different angles around the body and uses computer processing to create cross-sectional images (slices) of the bones, blood vessels, and soft tissues inside the body.
Therefore, the correct option is $B$.

(C) $MRI$ (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiation to generate detailed images of the internal structures of the body.
$CT$ (Computed Tomography) and $CAT$ (Computed Axial Tomography) use $X$-rays.
Sonography uses high-frequency sound waves.

(D) The correct answer is $D$.
$1$. Pap smear is a diagnostic test used to detect cervical cancer.
$2$. $C.T.$ (Computed Tomography) scan uses $X$-rays to generate three-dimensional images of the internal organs. Note: The original option $B$ mentions $\gamma$-rays,but $C.T.$ uses $X$-rays; however,$D$ is a more fundamental mismatch because $MRI$ (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) is an imaging technique,not a 'laboratory test' (which typically refers to blood,urine,or tissue analysis).
$3$. Endoscopy is a medical examination technique to view internal body parts.
$4$. $MRI$ is an imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radio waves,not a laboratory test.

(D) The analogy is based on the principle or technology used for medical imaging.
Radiography uses $X$-rays (ionizing radiation) to create images of the body.
$MRI$ (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiations (radio waves) to generate detailed images of the internal structures of the body.
Therefore,both $A$ (Strong magnetic field) and $C$ (Non-ionizing radiations) are correct characteristics associated with $MRI$.
Thus,the correct option is $D$.

(A) Endoscopy is a medical procedure that uses an instrument called an endoscope to examine the interior of a hollow organ or body cavity.
An endoscope consists of a bundle of optical fibers.
These optical fibers work on the principle of total internal reflection of light.
When light enters the fiber at an appropriate angle,it undergoes multiple total internal reflections,allowing the light to travel through the fiber without significant loss of intensity,even if the fiber is bent.
Therefore,the correct phenomenon is total internal reflection.

(N/A) $1.$ $\text{Non-Governmental Organizations}$ $(NGOs)$
$2.$ $\text{Magnetic Resonance Imaging}$ $(MRI)$
$3.$ $\text{Computed Tomography}$ $(CT)$

(N/A) $(i)$ $NIOH$ stands for National Institute of Occupational Health.
$(ii)$ $GGCL$ stands for Gujarat Gas Company Limited.

(C) $X$-rays are used in $CT$-scan (Computed Tomographic scanning).
It utilizes $X$-rays to generate cross-sectional images of the body.
Unlike traditional radiography,it employs a computer to reconstruct the image from multiple $X$-ray measurements instead of directly recording it on a photographic film.

(B) In $MRI$ (Magnetic Resonance Imaging),strong magnetic fields and non-ionizing radiations are used to accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the living tissue. This technique relies on the alignment of hydrogen nuclei (protons) present in the body's water molecules to generate detailed images.