Principles of biotechnology Questions in English

(D) Modified antibiotics are produced by altering the structure of naturally occurring antibiotics to improve their efficacy,reduce side effects,or overcome bacterial resistance. This process is primarily achieved through $Genetic \ engineering$ (or recombinant $DNA$ technology),which allows scientists to modify the biosynthetic pathways of microorganisms to produce novel or enhanced antibiotic compounds.

(D) Genetic engineering is a branch of biotechnology that involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.
It specifically refers to the process of introducing foreign genes (transgenes) into the genome of an organism to improve its genotype and express desired traits.
This technique allows for the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) with enhanced characteristics such as disease resistance,higher yield,or improved nutritional value.

(C) Genetic engineering is a modern biotechnology technique that allows scientists to manipulate the genetic material $(DNA)$ of an organism. By isolating,modifying,and transferring specific genes,it is possible to introduce desired traits into plants and animals,such as disease resistance,increased yield,or improved nutritional quality. This precision makes it a powerful tool for crop and livestock improvement compared to traditional breeding methods.

(C) The term "biotechnology" was coined by the Hungarian agricultural engineer Karl Ereky in $1919$ (published in $1919$ and $1920$). He used this term to describe the process of using living organisms to convert raw materials into useful products. Therefore, the context of its origin is associated with the year $1920$ in Hungary.

(D) Immobilisation of enzymes is the process of fixing an enzyme to or enclosing it in a solid support.
This technique is used to protect the enzyme from deactivation and proteolysis,maintain enzyme purity,allow for easy recovery of the enzyme after the reaction,and facilitate the use of the enzyme in a continuous process.
Therefore,immobilised enzymes are primarily used in continuous bioreactor systems to ensure long-term productivity and cost-effectiveness.

(C) Genetic engineering is a $DNA$ manipulation technology that involves the modification of genes artificially. It is used to produce and modify $DNA$ sequences for creating cells,tissues,organs,and individuals to suit human requirements. Therefore,the correct option is $C$.

(D) $Euphenics$ is the study of improving the phenotype of an individual by modifying the environment or using medical interventions to treat genetic disorders.
$Euthenics$ is the study of improving the human race by improving environmental conditions.
$Eugenics$ is the study of improving the human race by controlling hereditary factors (selective breeding).
Genetic engineering involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. None of the listed options ($Euphenics$, $Euthenics$, or $Eugenics$) specifically refer to the field of genetic engineering. Therefore, the correct answer is $None$ $of$ $these$.

(D) Genetic engineering,also known as recombinant $DNA$ technology,involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.
It allows scientists to alter the genetic makeup of an organism by adding,removing,or modifying specific $DNA$ sequences to achieve desired traits.

(A) Har Govind Khorana is associated with genetic engineering.
He synthesized a gene artificially in a test tube in $1969$.
Watson and Crick are known for the double helix model of $DNA$.
Messelson is known for the semi-conservative replication of $DNA$.

(D) Genetic engineering is a branch of biotechnology that involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.
It is frequently used as a synonym for recombinant $DNA$ technology,which involves the artificial joining of $DNA$ molecules from different sources to create new genetic combinations.
This technology is widely used in $DNA$ cloning and gene cloning to produce desired traits in organisms.
Therefore,the term genetic engineering is most appropriately used for recombinant $DNA$ technique.

(B) Genetic engineering is a branch of biotechnology that involves the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.
It includes techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material ($DNA$ and $RNA$) and introduce these into host organisms,thus changing the phenotype of the host organism.
Therefore,the process of introducing $DNA$ into an organism is a core component of genetic engineering.

(B) Genetic engineering,also known as recombinant $DNA$ technology,is the manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.
It involves the artificial introduction,modification,or removal of genes to alter the characteristics of an organism.
Therefore,the introduction of genes by artificial processes is the fundamental definition of genetic engineering.

(C) The $EFB$ (European Federation of Biotechnology) defines biotechnology as the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services. This definition encompasses both traditional processes (like fermentation) and modern molecular techniques (like genetic engineering).

(C) Chimeric $DNA$ is another term for recombinant $DNA$.
It is formed by combining $DNA$ fragments from two or more different sources or organisms using molecular cloning techniques.
This process involves the insertion of a foreign $DNA$ segment into a vector $DNA$ molecule,resulting in a hybrid or chimeric molecule.

(C) In $1972$,Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen successfully constructed the first recombinant $DNA$ molecule.
They achieved this by isolating an antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a piece of $DNA$ from a plasmid which was responsible for antibiotic resistance.
This landmark experiment laid the foundation for modern biotechnology and genetic engineering.

(C) Genetic engineering is the process of manipulating the genetic material of an organism by introducing foreign $DNA$ or gene fragments to alter its genotype and phenotype. This technique allows for the creation of genetically modified organisms $(GMOs)$ with desired traits.

(A) Biotechnology is defined as the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services. It involves the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services. Therefore,the science of engineering and technology applied to biology is $Biotechnology$.

(A) Genetic engineering is the technology used to modify the genetic material of organisms,including bacteria like $Streptococcus$. By altering the $DNA$,scientists can create strains that produce specific proteins or enzymes,such as streptokinase,which is used as a 'clot buster' for removing clots from the blood vessels of patients who have undergone myocardial infarction. Therefore,the correct option is $A$.

(A) Recombinant $DNA$ technology is widely used in the production of vaccines,such as the Hepatitis $B$ vaccine,which is produced from yeast. This technology allows for the insertion of specific genes into host cells to produce large quantities of antigens. While $PCR$ is a diagnostic tool used to amplify $DNA$ sequences,it is not a technology used for the production of vaccines themselves. Therefore,the correct answer is $A$.

(B) Biotechnology is defined as the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services.
It specifically deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to humans.
Therefore,the correct option is $B$.

(B) The definition of biotechnology was provided by the European Federation of Biotechnology $(EFB)$.
According to the $EFB$,biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services.

(B) When an alien or foreign $DNA$ is linked with the origin of replication $(ori)$ of a vector, it gains the ability to replicate within the host cell.
This process of producing multiple identical copies of a specific template $DNA$ is known as $DNA$ cloning.
Therefore, the integration of foreign $DNA$ into a vector to allow its replication in a host organism is a fundamental step in $DNA$ cloning.

(D) The first recombinant $DNA$ molecule was constructed by $Stanley \ Cohen$ and $Herbert \ Boyer$ in $1973$. They accomplished this by isolating the antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out a piece of $DNA$ from a plasmid which was responsible for conferring antibiotic resistance. This discovery laid the foundation for modern recombinant $DNA$ technology.

(C) The three basic steps in genetically modifying an organism are:
$1$. Identification of $DNA$ with desirable genes.
$2$. Introduction of the identified $DNA$ into the host.
$3$. Maintenance of introduced $DNA$ in the host and transfer of the $DNA$ to its progeny.
Option $C$ is incorrect because the introduction of non-identified $RNA$ is not a standard step in genetic engineering.

(C) Statement $I$ is correct: The copy number refers to the number of plasmid molecules present within a single bacterial cell.
Statement $II$ is correct: The copy number of plasmids varies significantly depending on the type of plasmid; for many common cloning vectors like $pBR322$,it typically ranges from $15-100$ copies per cell.
Therefore,both statements are true.

(D) The genetic code is universal,meaning that the same codons specify the same amino acids in almost all living organisms,from bacteria to humans. Because of this universality,when a human gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid and introduced into a bacterial cell,the bacterial machinery can successfully transcribe and translate the human gene into the corresponding human protein.

(N/A) 'suitable gene' refers to a specific $DNA$ segment that encodes for a specific antigen (protein). When this $DNA$ is introduced into the host's cells, the cells express this gene to produce the antigen. This antigen is then recognized by the host's immune system, which triggers an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies and memory cells, thereby providing immunity against the specific pathogen.

(N/A) Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and processes useful to humans.
In this sense, making curd, bread, or wine, which are all microbe-mediated processes, could also be thought of as a form of biotechnology.
Modern biotechnology is often associated with the production of therapeutic substances like insulin, using gene-transformed microorganisms such as $E. coli$ or yeast. It also includes the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) like $Bt$-Cotton.
Biotechnology is also associated with the medical treatment of diseases like Hepatitis-$C$, Diabetes, Cancer, Hemophilia, and Osteoporosis.
The European Federation of Biotechnology $(EFB)$ has provided a definition that encompasses both traditional views and modern molecular biotechnology.
The definition given by $EFB$ is as follows: "The integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services."

(N/A) The two core techniques that enabled the birth of modern biotechnology are:
$(i)$ Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material ($DNA$ and $RNA$) to introduce these into host organisms,thereby changing the phenotype of the host organism.
$(ii)$ Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of a sterile (microbial contamination-free) environment in chemical engineering processes to enable the growth of only the desired microbe or eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics,vaccines,and enzymes.

(N/A) $1$. Sexual reproduction provides opportunities for variations and the formation of unique combinations of genetic setups,some of which may be beneficial to the organism as well as the population.
$2$. Asexual reproduction preserves genetic information,while sexual reproduction permits variation.
$3$. Traditional hybridization procedures used in plant and animal breeding very often lead to the inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
$4$. To overcome such limitations,Genetic Engineering is the best approach.
$5$. In Genetic Engineering,recombinant $DNA$ is created using gene cloning and gene transfer.
$6$. Thus,Genetic Engineering allows us to isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.

(N/A) In recombinant $DNA$ technology,a piece of $DNA$ is transferred into an alien organism.
- This piece of $DNA$ would not be able to multiply itself in the progeny cells of the organism.
- However,when it gets integrated into the genome of the recipient,it may multiply and be inherited along with the host $DNA$. This is because the alien piece of $DNA$ has become part of a chromosome,which has the ability to replicate.
- In a chromosome,there is a specific $DNA$ sequence known as the 'origin of replication' $(ori)$,which is responsible for initiating replication.
- Therefore,for the multiplication of any alien piece of $DNA$ in an organism,it needs to be a part of a chromosome that has a specific sequence known as the 'origin of replication'.
- Thus,an alien $DNA$ is linked with the origin of replication so that this alien piece of $DNA$ can replicate and multiply itself in the host organism. This process is also called cloning.

(A) The construction of the first recombinant $DNA$ emerged from the possibility of linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native plasmid of $Salmonella$ $typhimurium$.
Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer accomplished this in $1972$.
- The cutting of $DNA$ at specific locations became possible with the discovery of molecular scissors,known as restriction enzymes.
The cut piece of $DNA$ was then linked with the plasmid $DNA$. These plasmid $DNA$ molecules act as vectors to transfer the piece of $DNA$ attached to them.
$\Rightarrow$ Just as a mosquito acts as an insect vector to transfer the malarial parasite into the human body,a plasmid can be used as a vector to deliver an alien piece of $DNA$ into the host organism.
The linking of the antibiotic resistance gene with the plasmid vector became possible with the enzyme $DNA$ ligase.
This creates a new combination of circular,autonomously replicating $DNA$ in vitro,which is known as recombinant $DNA$.
When this $DNA$ is transferred into $Escherichia$ $coli$,a bacterium closely related to $Salmonella$,it can replicate using the new host's $DNA$ polymerase enzyme and produce multiple copies.

(N/A) $(i)$ Origin of replication $(ori)$: This is a specific $DNA$ sequence where replication starts. Any piece of $DNA$ linked to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells. It is also responsible for controlling the copy number of the linked $DNA$.
$(ii)$ Selectable marker: In addition to the origin of replication,a vector requires a selectable marker. This helps in identifying and eliminating non-transformants and selectively permitting the growth of the transformants. Genes encoding resistance to antibiotics such as ampicillin,chloramphenicol,tetracycline,or kanamycin are considered useful selectable markers for $E. coli$.
$(iii)$ Cloning sites: To link the alien $DNA$,the vector needs to have very few,preferably single,recognition sites for the commonly used restriction enzymes. The presence of more than one recognition site within the vector will generate several fragments,which complicates gene cloning. The ligation of alien $DNA$ is typically carried out at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance genes.

(B) The copy number of a plasmid is directly related to the number of copies of the gene of interest present in the host cell.
Since each gene copy acts as a template for transcription,a higher copy number of the vector plasmid leads to a higher number of gene copies.
Consequently,the protein coded by the gene is produced in a significantly higher amount,meaning the yield of the recombinant protein is directly proportional to the copy number of the plasmid vector.

(C) Both are correct. Biotechnology is a broad field that encompasses techniques using natural organisms (or their parts) as well as genetically modified organisms to create products and processes beneficial to humanity.
$A$ wine maker uses a specific strain of yeast to produce wine through fermentation,which is a natural biological process.
$A$ molecular biologist uses recombinant $DNA$ technology to clone genes for antigens,allowing for the mass production of vaccines.
Since both utilize biological agents to produce useful products,both are considered biotechnologists.

(C) The $Ori$ site (Origin of replication) is a specific sequence in the vector where replication starts. Any piece of $DNA$ linked to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells. This sequence is also responsible for controlling the copy number of the linked $DNA$.

(B) The $ori$ (Origin of replication) is a specific $DNA$ sequence in a vector where replication starts.
Any piece of $DNA$ linked to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells.
This sequence is also responsible for controlling the copy number of the linked $DNA$.
Therefore,if one wants to recover many copies of the target $DNA$,it should be cloned in a vector whose origin supports high copy number.

(C) Biotechnology is defined as the integration of natural science and organisms,cells,parts thereof,and molecular analogues for products and services. It involves the use of living organisms or enzymes derived from them to produce products and processes useful to humans.

(D) $EFB$ stands for the European Federation of Biotechnology. It is an organization that promotes the development of biotechnology in Europe and provides a platform for the exchange of information and collaboration among scientists, researchers, and industry professionals in the field of biotechnology.

(B) Genetic engineering is the technique that involves the manipulation of genetic material ($DNA$ or $RNA$) to introduce it into host organisms.
By altering the genetic makeup,the phenotype (observable characteristics) of the host organism is changed.
Bioprocess engineering,on the other hand,involves the maintenance of sterile conditions to enable the growth of only the desired microbe in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics,vaccines,and enzymes.

(A) In biotechnology,chemical engineering processes are essential for the large-scale production of desired biotechnological products (like antibiotics,vaccines,or enzymes).
To achieve this,it is necessary to maintain a sterile (microbial contamination-free) environment in chemical engineering processes.
This enables the growth of only the desired microbe in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products.

(A) Modern biotechnology is primarily based on two core techniques:
$1$. Genetic Engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material ($DNA$ and $RNA$) to introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
$2$. Bioprocess Engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination-free) ambience in chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics,vaccines,and enzymes.

(A) $r-DNA$ stands for Recombinant $DNA$.
It is a form of $DNA$ that has been created by combining sequences from two or more different sources,often using molecular cloning techniques to insert a gene of interest into a vector.

(B) In $1972$, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer constructed the first recombinant $DNA$ $(r-DNA)$ molecule. They achieved this by isolating an antibiotic resistance gene from a plasmid of the bacterium $Salmonella \, typhimurium$ and linking it with a native plasmid of $Escherichia \, coli$ using $DNA$ ligase.

(A) The origin of replication $(ori)$ is a specific $DNA$ sequence where replication initiates.
If this sequence is absent,the replication machinery ($DNA$ polymerase) cannot recognize the site to start the process.
Consequently,the $DNA$ molecule will fail to replicate,and it will not be able to produce copies of itself or be passed on to daughter cells.

(D) Biotechnology involves three main research areas:
$1$. Providing the best catalyst in the form of improved organisms (usually microbes or pure enzymes).
$2$. Creating optimal conditions through engineering for the catalyst to act.
$3$. Downstream processing technologies to purify the protein or organic compound.
Taxonomy is a branch of biology concerned with the classification,nomenclature,and identification of organisms,and it is not a primary research area of biotechnology.

(B) chimeric $DNA$ is a type of recombinant $DNA$ which is synthesized by joining the $DNA$ fragments obtained from two or more different sources. The term 'chimeric' refers to an organism or molecule containing genetic material from different species or sources.

(A) Genetic engineering is defined as the modification of the genetic information of a living organism by direct manipulation of its $DNA$.
Through this process,a gene of known function or economic importance can be isolated and transferred from its original source into a host cell using a suitable vector,such as a plasmid or a bacteriophage.

(A) Recombinant $DNA$ technology, often referred to as genetic engineering, involves the manipulation of $DNA$ to create new combinations of genetic material.
In $1972$, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first to construct a recombinant $DNA$ molecule by linking a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native plasmid of Salmonella typhimurium.
This breakthrough laid the foundation for modern biotechnology.
Therefore, the correct option is $A$.

(C) The term 'Biotechnology' was coined in $1917$ by a Hungarian engineer,Karl Ereky,to describe a process for the large-scale production of pigs.